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" trigram comprises the first three Greek letters of "IHΣOYΣ" (Jesus), later interpreted as "Iesus Homini Salvator",
Jesus, Saviour of Mankind and as "Iesum Habemus Socium",
We have Jesus as CompanionThe
Society of Jesus, (,
S.J. and
S.I.) is a Christian
religious order of the
Roman Catholic Church in service to the universal Church, whose members are called
Jesuits,
Soldiers of Jesus Christ, and
Foot soldiers of the Pope, because the founder, Saint Ignatius of Loyola, was a knight before becoming a Holy Orders.
Today, Jesuits number 20,170 (14,147 priests), and are the largest male religious order of the Roman Catholic Church (the Franciscan family of orders Franciscans, Order of Friars Minor Capuchin, and
Conventual Franciscans has some 31,899 members priests).
Jesuit priests and brothers are engaged in religious ministry in 112 nations on six continents. No work, if it has an evangelical perspective, is closed to them, but they are best known in the fields of education (schools, colleges, universities, seminaries, theological faculties), intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. They are also known in missionary work and direct evangelization, social justice and human rights activities, interreligious dialogue, and other 'frontier' ministry.
The Society of Jesus is
consecrated under the
patron saint of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a
Superior General of the Society of Jesus, currently
Peter Hans Kolvenbach.
The headquarters of the Society, called
Curia, is in Rome. The history curia of St Ignatius is now part of the
Collegio del Gesù attached to the
Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church.
History
Foundation
On
August 15,
1534,
Ignatius of Loyola (born Íñigo López de Loyola—he changed his first name to match that of
Ignatius of Antioch), a Spaniard of
Basque people origin, and six other students at the
University of Paris (
Francis Xavier,
Alfonso Salmeron,
Diego Laynez, and
Nicolás Bobadilla all from Spain, Peter Faber from Savoy in France, and Simão Rodrigues from
Portugal) met in Montmartre outside Paris, probably either at
Saint Pierre de Montmartre (the local abbey) or near the modern Chapel of St Denys, Rue Antoinette.
This group bound themselves by a vow of poverty and chastity, to "enter upon hospital and missionary work in
Jerusalem, or to go without questioning wherever the pope might direct".
They called themselves the Company of Jesus, because they felt
they were placed together by Christ. The name had echoes of the military (as in an infantry "Company (military unit)"), as well as of discipleship (the "companions" of Jesus). The word "company" comes ultimately from Latin,
cum +
pane = "bread with," or a group that shares meals.
These initial steps led to the founding of what would be called the Society of Jesus later in 1540. The term
societas in Latin is derived from
socius, a partner or comrade.
Much is sometimes made of Ignatius' military background; in fact nowhere in the Constitutions of the order is the Society of Jesus compared to an army.
In 1537, they travelled to Italy to seek papal approval for their Order (religious).
Pope Paul III gave them a commendation, and permitted them to be ordained priests.
They were ordained at
Venice by the bishop of
Arbe (
June 24). They devoted themselves to preaching and charitable work in Italy, as the renewed
Italian War of 1535-1538 between
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Venice, the pope and the Ottoman Empire rendered any journey to Jerusalem impossible.
With
Peter Faber, Diego Lainez, Francis Xavier and other less known early companions Ignatius made his way to Rome in October 1538, to offer their priestly services to the pope. When it was clear that the missions given them by the Pope would lead to a break-up of the group of
Friends in the Lord they decided to bind themselves spiritually together by obedience to a superior.
They presented the project to the Pope. A congregation of Cardinal (Catholicism)s reported favorably upon the Constitution presented, and Paul III confirmed the order through the Papal bull
Regimini militantis ecclesiae (
September 27,
1540), but limited the number of its members to sixty. This is the founding document of the Jesuits as an official Catholic religious order.
This limitation was removed through the bull
Injunctum nobis (March 14, 1543). Ignatius was chosen as the first superior-general. He sent his companions as missionaries around Europe to create schools, colleges, and seminaries.Hopfl, Harro (2004) "Jesuit Political Thought: The Society of Jesus and the State, C.1540-1630"
Cambridge University Press. 426 pp. ISBN 0-521-83779-0.
When developed, Jesuits concentrated on three activities. First, they founded schools throughout Europe. Jesuit teachers were rigorously trained in both classical studies and theology. The Jesuits' second mission was to convert non-Christians to Catholicism, so they developed and sent out missionaries. Their third goal was to stop Protestantism from spreading. The zeal of the Jesuits overcame the drift toward Protestantism in Poland-
Lithuania and southern
Germany.
Ignatius wrote the Jesuit
Constitutions, adopted in
1554, which created a tightly centralized organization and stressed absolute self-abnegation and obedience to Pope and superiors (
perinde ac cadaver, " like a corpse" as Ignatius put it).
His main principle became the unofficial Jesuit motto:
Ad Maiorem Dei Gloriam ("For the greater glory of God"). This phrase is designed to reflect the idea that any work that is not evil can be meritorious for the spiritual life if it is performed with this intention, even things considered normally indifferent.
The Society of Jesus is classified among institutes as a mendicant order of cleric, that is, a body of priests organized for
apostolic work, following a religious order governance, and relying on
alms, or donations, for support.
The term "Jesuit" (of 15th century origin, meaning
one who used too frequently or appropriated the name of Jesus), was first applied to the Society in reproach (
1544-
1552), and was never employed by its founder, though members and friends of the Society in time appropriated the name in its positive meaning.
Early works
, 1598The Jesuits were founded just before the Counter-Reformation (or at least before the date those historians with a classical view of the counter reformation hold to be the beginning of the Counter-Reformation), a movement whose purpose was to reform the Catholic Church from within and to counter the
Protestant Reformation, whose teachings were spreading throughout Catholicism Europe.
As part of their service to the Roman Church, the Jesuits encouraged people to continue their obedience to scripture as interpreted by Catholic
doctrine. Ignatius is known to have written:
"I will believe that the white that I see is black if the hierarchical Church so defines it."Cheyne, Colin (2001) "Knowledge, Cause, and Abstract Objects: Causal Objections to Platonism"
Springer 252 pp. ISBN 1-4020-0051-0.
But his hyperbole relativizes propositional claims defined by the hierarchical Church. For him, the important things in life are not propositional definitions, but the spiritual movements within oneself.
Ignatius and the early Jesuits did recognize, though, that the hierarchical Church was in dire need of reform, and some of their greatest struggles were against corruption,
venality, and spiritual lassitude within the Roman Catholic Church.
Ignatius's insistence on an extremely high level of academic preparation for ministry, for instance, was a deliberate response to the relatively poor education of much of the clergy of his time, and the Jesuit vow against "ambitioning prelacies" was a deliberate effort to prevent greed for money or power invading Jesuit circles.
As a result, in spite of their loyalty, Ignatius and his successors often tangled with the pope and the Roman Curia. Over the 450 years since its founding, the Society has both been called the papal "elite troops" and been forced into
Suppression of the Jesuits.
St. Ignatius and the Jesuits who followed him believed that the reform of the Church had to begin with the conversion of an individual’s heart. One of the main tools the Jesuits have used to bring about this conversion has been the Ignatian retreat, called the
Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola.
During a four-week period of silence, individuals undergo a series of directed meditations on the life of Christ. During this period, they meet regularly with a spiritual director, who helps them understand whatever call or message God has offered in their meditations.
The retreat follows a Purgative-Illuminative-Unitive pattern in the tradition of the mysticism of John Cassian and the
Desert Fathers. Ignatius' innovation was to make this style of contemplative mysticism available to all people in active life, and to use it as a means of rebuilding the spiritual life of the Church. The Exercises became both the basis for the training of Jesuits themselves and one of the essential ministries of the order: giving the exercises to others in what became known as retreats.
The Jesuits’ contributions to the late
Renaissance were significant in their roles both as a missionary order and as the first religious order to operate colleges and university as a principal and distinct ministry.
By the time of Ignatius' death in
1556, the Jesuits were already operating a network of 74 colleges on three continents. A precursor to liberal arts, the Jesuit plan of studies incorporated the Classical teachings of Renaissance humanism into the Scholastic structure of Catholic thought.
In addition to teaching faith, the
Ratio Studiorum emphasized the study of
Latin, Greek language, classical literature,
poetry, and philosophy as well as non-European languages, sciences and the
arts. Furthermore, Jesuit schools encouraged the study of
vernacular literature and rhetoric, and thereby became important centers for the training of lawyers and public officials.
The Jesuit schools played an important part in winning back to Catholicism a number of European countries which had for a time been predominantly Protestant, notably
Poland and
Lithuania. Today, Jesuit colleges and universities are located in over one hundred nations around the world.
Under the notion that
God can be encountered through created things and especially art, they encouraged the use of ceremony and decoration in Catholic ritual and devotion. Perhaps as a result of this appreciation for art, coupled with their spiritual practice of "finding God in all things", many early Jesuits distinguished themselves in the visual and
performing arts as well as in music.
The Jesuits were able to obtain significant influence in the
Early Modern Period because Jesuit priests often acted as
confessions to the Monarch of the time. They were an important force in the Counter-Reformation and in the Catholic missions, in part because their relatively loose structure (without the requirements of living in community, saying the Liturgy of the Hours together, etc.) allowed them to be flexible to meet the needs of the people at the time.
Expansion
in Paraguay, one of the many Jesuit missions established in South America during the 17th and 18th centuries, painting from
1779.Early missions in Japan resulted in the government granting the Jesuits the feudal fiefdom of Nagasaki in
1580. However, this was removed in
1587 due to fears over their growing influence.
Francis Xavier arrived in Goa, in Western India in 1541 to consider evangelical service in the Indies. He died after a decade of evangelism in Southern India. Two Jesuit missionaries, Johann Gruber and
Albert D'Orville, reached Lhasa in Tibet in 1661.
Jesuit Mission (Christian)s in Latin America were very controversial in Europe, especially in Spain and Portugal, where they were seen as interfering with the proper colonial enterprises of the royal governments. The Jesuits were often the only force standing between the
Indigenous peoples of the Americas and slavery. Together throughout
South America but especially in present-day Brazil and
Paraguay they formed Christian Native American city-states, called "
Jesuit Reductions" (Spanish
Reducciones, Portuguese
Reduções). These were societies set up according to an idealized
theocracy model. It is partly because the Jesuits protected the natives whom certain Spanish and Portuguese colonizers wanted to enslave that the Society of Jesus was suppressed. (As seen in the 1986 award winning film "The Mission (film)".)
Jesuit priests such as Manuel da Nóbrega and
José de Anchieta founded several towns in Brazil in the
16th century, including São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, and were very influential in the
pacification, religious conversion and
education of
AmerindiansThere were several Jesuit missions in China.
Jesuit scholars working in these foreign missions were very important in understanding their unknown languages and strived to produce Latinicized
grammars and dictionaries. This was done, for instance, for Japanese language (see
Nippo jisho also known as
Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam, a Japanese-Portuguese dictionary written 1603) and
Tupi-Guarani (a language group of South American aborigines). Jean François Pons in the 1740s pioneered the study of Sanskrit in the West.
Under Portuguese royal patronage, the order thrived in Goa and until 1759 successfully expanded its activities to education and healthcare. On
17 December 1759, Marquis of Pombal, Secretary of State in Portugal expelled the Jesuits from Portugal and Portuguese possessions overseas.
Jesuit activity in China
The
Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, then undergoing its own revolution, to China. The Society of Jesus introduced, according to
Thomas Woods, "a substantial body of scientific knowledge and a vast array of mental tools for understanding the physical universe, including the Euclidean geometry that made planetary motion comprehensible." Another expert quoted by Woods said the scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when science was at a very low level in China:
Conversely, the Jesuits were very active in transmitting Chinese knowledge to Europe. Confucius's works were translated into European languages through the agency of Jesuit scholars stationed in China.
Matteo Ricci started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and father Prospero Intorcetta published the life and works of Confucius into
Latin in
1687."Windows into China", John Parker, p.25 It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Christianity."Windows into China", John Parker, p.25, ISBN 0890730504"The Eastern origins of Western civilization", John Hobson, p194-195, ISBN 0521547245
The French
physiocrat François Quesnay, founder of modern economics, and a forerunner of Adam Smith was in his lifetime known as "the European Confucius".FORERUNNERS OF HENRY GEORGEby Samuel Milliken, Online source The doctrine and even the name of "Laissez-faire" may have been inspired by the Chinese concept of
Wu wei. 1 Source"The Eastern Origins of Western Civilization", John M. Hobson, p.196 Goethe, was known as "the Confucius of Weimar".Quarterly Review of Comparatice Education Online source
Suppression and restoration
is the home to the world's largest Jesuit communityThe Suppression of the Jesuits in
Portugal,
France, the Two Sicilies, Duchy of Parma and the Spanish Empire by 1767 was troubling to the Society's defender,
Pope Clement XIII. A decree signed under secular pressure by Pope Clement XIV in July 1773 suppressed the Order. The suppression was carried out in all countries except
Prussia and
Russia, where
Catherine the Great had forbidden the pope decree to be executed. Because millions of Catholics (including many Jesuits) lived in the Polish western provinces of the Russian Empire, the Society was able to maintain its existence and carry on its work all through the period of suppression. Subsequently, Pope
Pius VI would grant formal permission for the continuation of the Society in Russia and Poland. Based on that permission, Stanislaus Czerniewicz was elected superior of the Society in 1782.
Pius VII during his captivity in France, had resolved to restore the Jesuits universally; and after his return to Rome he did so with little delay: on
7 August, 1814, by the Bull
Solicitudo omnium ecclesiarum, he reversed the suppression of the Order and therewith, the then Superior in Russia, Thaddeus Brzozowski, who had been elected in 1805, acquired universal jurisdiction.
The period following the Restoration of the Jesuits in 1814 was marked by tremendous growth, as evidenced by the large number of Jesuit colleges and universities established in the
19th century. In the United States, 22 of the Society's 28 universities were founded or taken over by the Jesuits during this time. Some claim that the experience of suppression served to heighten
orthodoxy among the Jesuits upon restoration. While this claim is debatable, Jesuits were generally supportive of Papal authority within the Church, and some members were associated with the Ultramontanist movement and the declaration of
Papal Infallibility in 1870.
In
Switzerland, following the defeat of the Ultramontanism Sonderbund by Calvinist cantons, the Swiss Federal Constitution was modified and Jesuits were banished in 1848. The ban was lifted on 20 May 1973, when 54.9% of voters accepted a
referendum modifying the Constitution. Official results (in
French language) on the website of the Swiss Administration.
The
20th century witnessed both aspects of growth and decline. Following a trend within the Catholic priesthood at large, Jesuit numbers peaked in the 1950s and have declined steadily since. Meanwhile the number of Jesuit institutions has grown considerably, due in large part to a late 20th century focus on the establishment of Jesuit secondary schools in
inner-city areas and an increase in lay association with the order. Among the notable Jesuits of the 20th century,
John Courtney Murray, SJ, was called one of the "architects of the Second Vatican Council" and drafted what eventually became the council's endorsement of religious freedom,
Dignitatis Humanae Personae in apparent contradiction of Pope Eugene IV's Domini Cantate.
Jesuits today
{| align="right" class="wikitable"! Current Jesuit Cardinals! Date of Birth
Current Age! Elevated to Cardinal|-|
Jorge Bergoglio Archbishop of
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Buenos Aires| December 17, 1936
-1-1936+|11|28-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->+-1-->|12|31-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->-/-1-->|12|31-->-->-->-->-0.49 round 0--> years, |11|28-->+-1-->|12|31-->---> mod -1-->|12|31-->--> days| February 21, 2001
Pope John Paul II|-|
Julius Darmaatmadja Archbishop of Bishops and Archbishops of Jakarta| December 20, 1934
-1-1934+|11|28-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->+-1-->|12|31-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->-/-1-->|12|31-->-->-->-->-0.49 round 0--> years, |11|28-->+-1-->|12|31-->---> mod -1-->|12|31-->--> days| November 26, 1994
Pope John Paul II|-| Avery Dulles
priest| August 24, 1918
-1-1918+|11|28-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->+-1-->|12|31-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->-/-1-->|12|31-->-->-->-->-0.49 round 0--> years, |11|28-->+-1-->|12|31-->---> mod -1-->|12|31-->--> days| February 21, 2001
Pope John Paul II|-|
Ján Chryzostom Korec Bishop
Emeritus of Nitra
Archbishop
Emeritus of [Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan| February 15, 1927
-1-1927+|11|28-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->+-1-->|12|31-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->-/-1-->|12|31-->-->-->-->-0.49 round 0--> years, |11|28-->+-1-->|12|31-->---> mod -1-->|12|31-->--> days| February 2, 1983
Pope John Paul II|-| Urbano
Cardinal Navarrete Cortés
priest| May 25, 1920
-1-1920+|11|28-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->+-1-->|12|31-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->-/-1-->|12|31-->-->-->-->-0.49 round 0--> years, |11|28-->+-1-->|12|31-->---> mod -1-->|12|31-->--> days| November 24, 2007
Pope Benedict XVI|-|
Paul Shan Kuo-hsi Bishop
Emeritus of Kaohsiung
priest| December 17, 1919
-1-1919+|11|28-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->+-1-->|12|31-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->-/-1-->|12|31-->-->-->-->-0.49 round 0--> years, |11|28-->+-1-->|12|31-->---> mod -1-->|12|31-->--> days| October 21, 2003
Pope John Paul II|-| [Roberto Tucci
priest| April 19, 1921
-1-1921+|11|28-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->+-1-->|12|31-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->-/-1-->|12|31-->-->-->-->-0.49 round 0--> years, |11|28-->+-1-->|12|31-->---> mod -1-->|12|31-->--> days| February 21, 2001
Pope John Paul II|-| Albert Vanhoye
priest| July 23, 1923
-1-1923+|11|28-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->+-1-->|12|31-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->-/-1-->|12|31-->-->-->-->-0.49 round 0--> years, |11|28-->+-1-->|12|31-->---> mod -1-->|12|31-->--> days| March 24, 2006
Pope Benedict XVI|}The Jesuits today form the largest
religious order of priests in the Catholic Church, with over 20,000 members serving in 112 nations on six continents, the largest number being in India followed by those in the United States. The current
Superior General of the Society of Jesus of the Jesuits is Peter Hans Kolvenbach. The Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of
missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably,
higher education. It operates colleges and universities in various countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines and
India. In the United States alone, it maintains over 50 colleges, universities and high schools. A typical conception of the mission of a Jesuit school will often contain such concepts as proposing Christ as the model of human life, the pursuit of excellence in teaching and learning and life-long spiritual and intellectual growth. St. Aloysius College mission statement. In Latin America, Liberal Jesuits have had significant influence in the development of liberation theology, a movement which has been highly controversial in the Catholic theological community and condemned by Pope John Paul II on several fundamental aspects.
Under Superior General Pedro Arrupe, social justice and the preferential option for the poor emerged as dominant themes of the work of the Jesuits. On
November 16, 1989, six Jesuit priests (Ignacio Ellacuria,
Segundo Montes, Ignacio Martin-Baro, Joaquin Lopez y Lopez, Juan Ramon Moreno, and Amado Lopez); their housekeeper, Elba Ramos; and her daughter, Celia Marisela Ramos, were murdered by the
El Salvador military on the campus of the University of Central America in San Salvador, El Salvador because they had been labeled as subversives by the government. The assassinations galvanized the Society's peace and justice movements, including annual protests at the
Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation at
Fort Benning, Georgia,
Georgia (U.S. state), where the assassins were trained under US government sponsorship.
In 2002, Boston College president William P. Leahy, SJ, initiated the
Church in the 21st Century program as a means of moving the Church "from crisis to renewal." The initiative has provided the Society with a platform for examining issues brought about by the worldwide Roman Catholic sex abuse cases, including the priesthood, celibacy, Human sexuality, women's roles, and the role of the
laity.
On January 6, 2005, Fr. Peter Hans Kolvenbach, on the occasion of the Jubilee Year, wrote that the Jesuits "should truly profit from the jubilee year to examine our way of life and taking the means to live more profoundly the charisms received from our Founders." Letter to major superiors, 6 January 2005.
In April 2005,
Thomas J. Reese, SJ, editor of the American Jesuit weekly magazine
America (magazine), resigned at the request of the Society. The move was widely published in the media as the result of pressure from the Vatican, following years of criticism by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith on articles touching subjects such as
AIDS, religious pluralism, homosexuality and the right of life for the unborn. Reese is currently on a year-long sabbatical at
Santa Clara University. to the Pontifical Gregorian University, "one of the greatest services the Society of Jesus carries out for the universal Church."On February 2, 2006, Fr.
Peter Hans Kolvenbach, informed members of the Society of Jesus, that with the consent of
Pope Benedict XVI, he intends to step down as Superior General in 2008, the year he will turn 80. The 35th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus that will elect a new superior general, and decide other important policy for the Jesuit order in the years to come, will convene on 5 January 2008, in Rome. While the Jesuit superior general is elected for life, the order's constitutions allow him to step down.
On April 22, 2006, Feast of Our Lady, Mother of the Society of Jesus, Pope Benedict greeted thousands of Jesuits on pilgrimage to Rome, and took the opportunity to thank God "for having granted to your Company the gift of men of extraordinary sanctity and of exceptional apostolic zeal such as St Ignatius of Loyola, St Francis Xavier and Bl Peter Faber." He said "St Ignatius of Loyola was above all a man of God, who gave the first place of his life to God, to his greater glory and his greater service. He was a man of profound prayer, which found its center and its culmination in the daily Eucharistic Celebration." Address of Benedict XVI to the Jesuits, April 22, 2006.
In May 2006, Benedict XVI also wrote a letter to Fr. Peter Hans Kolvenbach on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of Pope Pius XII's encyclical "Haurietis Aquas," on devotion to the Sacred Heart, because the Jesuits have always been "extremely active in the promotion of this essential devotion." Benedict XVI Hails Devotion to Sacred Heart, May 23, 2006. In his November 3, 2006 visit to the
Pontifical Gregorian University, Benedict XVI cited the university as "one of the greatest services that the Society of Jesus carries out for the universal Church." Benedict XVI's visit to the Gregorian University.
Ignatian spirituality
. According to Benedict XVI, the Jesuits have always been "extremely active in the promotion of this essential devotion."Like all Catholic spirituality, the spirituality practiced by the Jesuits, called Ignatian spirituality, is based on the Catholic faith and the gospels. Aside from the "Constitutions," "The Letters," and "Autobiography," Ignatian spirituality draws most specially from St. Ignatius' "Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola," whose purpose is "to conquer oneself and to regulate one's life in such a way that nodecision is made under the influence of any inordinate attachment." In other words, the Exercises are intended, in Ignatius' view, to give the exercitant (the person undertaking them) a greater degree of freedom from his or her own likes, dislikes, comforts, wants, needs, drives, appetites and passions that they may choose based solely on what they discern God's will is for them.
In the words of Kolvenbach, the Exercises try to "unite two apparently incompatible realities:
exercises and
spiritual." It invites to "unlimited generosity" in contemplating God, yet going down to the level of many details. Discourse given to the Rome Consultation, 16 February 2003.
Ignatian spirituality can be described as an active attentiveness to God joined with a prompt responsiveness to God, who is ever active in people's lives. Though it includes many forms of prayer, discernment, and apostolic service, it is the interior dispositions of attentiveness and responsiveness that are ultimately crucial. The result is that Ignatian spirituality has a remarkable 'nowness,' both in its attentiveness to God and in its desire to respond to what God is asking of the person now.Charles J. Jackson,
Ignatian Spirituality.
The Ignatian ideal has the following characteristics:Pinard De La Boullaye,
Ignatian Spirituality.
God's greater glory
St Ignatius of Loyola —"a man who gave the first place of his life to God" says Benedict XVI— stressed that "Man is created to praise, reverence, and serve God Our Lord and by this means to save his soul." This is the "First Principle and Foundation" of the Exercises. Ignatius declares: "The goal of our life is to live with God forever. God who loves us, gave us life. Our own response of love allows God's life to flow into us without limit... Our only desire and our one choice should be this: I want and I choose what better leads to the deepening of God's life in me."
Union with JesusIgnatius emphasized an ardent love for the Savior. In his Exercises, he devoted the last weeks to the contemplation of Jesus: from infancy and public ministry, to his passion and lastly his risen life. The Spiritual Exercises, in 104, sum this up in a prayer: "Lord, grant that I may see thee more clearly, love thee more dearly, follow thee more nearly." There is a great emphasis on the emotions in Ignatius' methods, and a call for the person to be very sensitive to the emotional movements that shape them.
Self-awareness
Ignatius recommends the twice daily examen. This is a guided method of prayerfully reviewing the events of a day to awaken an inner sensitivity to one's own actions, desires, and spiritual state through each moment reviewed. The goals are to see where God is challenging the person to change and growth, where God is calling the person to deeper reflection (this is particularly apt when discerning whether one has a
jesuit vocation in life), and where sinful or imperfect attitudes or blind spots are. The general examen, often at the end of the day, is, as the name implies, a general review. The particular examen, often in the middle of the day, focuses on a particular fault identified by the person to be worked on over some days or weeks.
Spiritual direction
Meditation and contemplation, and for instance the aforementioned examen, are best guided, Ignatius says, by an experienced person. Jesuits, and those following Ignatian spirituality, meet with their spiritual director (traditionally a priest, though in recent years many laypersons have undertaken this role) on a regular basis (weekly or monthly) to discuss the fruits of their prayer life and be offered guidance. Ignatius sees the director as someone who can rein in impulsiveness or excesses, goad the complacent, and keep people honest with themselves. If the director is a priest, spiritual direction may or may not be connected with the Sacrament of Penance. Ignatius counseled frequent use of sacrament and while some directors see them as integrally linked, others hold them to be two separate relationships.http://www.st-ignatius.net/events_docs/Ignatian%20Day%20Lecture%208-1-05%20_1_.pdf
Effective love
The founder of the Society of Jesus put effective love (love shown in deeds) above affective love (love based on nice feelings). He usually ended his most important letters with "I implore God to grant us all the grace to know His holy will and to accomplish it perfectly." True and perfect love demands sacrifice, the abandonment of tastes and personal preferences, and the perfect renunciation of self. This can be taken together with the prayer for generosity, which asks for teaching to be generous, to serve God as God deserves without counting any cost or seeking any reward except knowing that one is doing God's will.
Detachment
Where
Francis of Assisi's concept of poverty emphasized the spiritual benefits of simplicity and dependency, Ignatius emphasized detachment, or "indifference." For Ignatius, whether one was rich or poor, healthy or sick, in an assignment one enjoyed or one didn't, was comfortable in a culture or not, etc., should be a matter of spiritual indifference—a modern phrasing might put it as serene acceptance. Hence, a Jesuit (or one following Ignatian spirituality), placed in a comfortable, wealthy neighborhood should continue to live the Gospel life without anxiety or possessiveness, and if plucked instantly from that situation to be placed in a poor area and subjected to hardships should simply cheerfully accept that as well, without a sense of loss or being deprived.
Prayers, efforts at self-conquest and reflection
Ignatius's little book, the
Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola is a fruit of months of
prayer, and it is through prayer that one gets to understand Ignatian Spirituality. Jesuits stress the need to take time to reflect and to pray because prayer is at the foundation of Jesus's life. Prayer, in Ignatian spirituality, does not dispense from "helping oneself," a phrase frequently used by Ignatius. Thus, he also speaks of mortification and of amendment.
hung his military accoutrements before the image of the
Virgin of Montserrat. Then he led a period of asceticism to found the Society of Jesus.
Devotion to the Sacred Heart, the Eucharist and our Lady
The Society of Jesus has a relationship with the Order of the Visitation of Holy Mary in a commitment to spread the devotion to the Sacred Heart (though the concept of devotion to Christ's mercy, as symbolized in the image of the Sacred Heart, is more ancient, its modern origins can be traced to St.
Marie Alacoque, a Visitation nun, whose spiritual director was St. Claude de la Colombière). The Jesuits particularly promoted this devotion to emphasize the compassion and overwhelming love of Christ for people, and to counteract the rigorism and spiritual pessimism of the Jansenists.
St. Ignatius counseled souls to receive the Eucharist more often, and from the order's earliest days the Jesuits were promoters of "frequent communion". It should be noted that it was the custom for many Catholics before this time to receive communion perhaps once or twice a year, out of what Catholic theologians considered an exaggerated respect for the sacrament; Ignatius and others advocated communion at least monthly, emphasizing communion not as reward but as spiritual food; by the time of Pope St.
Pius X, "frequent communion" had come to mean weekly and even daily reception of the Eucharist.
Ignatius made his initial commitment to a new way of life by leaving his soldier's weapons (and symbolically, his old values) on an altar before an image of the Christ child seated on the lap of Our Lady of Montserrat. The Jesuits were long promoters of the Sodality of Our Lady, their primary organization for their students until the 1960s, which they used to encourage frequent attendance at Mass, reception of communion, daily recitation of the Rosary, and attendance at retreats in the Ignatian tradition of the Spiritual Exercises.
Zeal for souls
The purpose of the Order, says the
Summary of the Constitutions, is "not only to apply one's self to one's own salvation and to perfection with the help of divine grace but to employ all one's strength, for the salvation and perfection of one's neighbor."
Finding God in All Things
The vision that Ignatius places at the beginning of the Exercises keeps sight of both the Creator and the creature, the One and the other swept along in the same movement of love. In it, God offers himself to humankind in an absolute way through the Son, and humankind responds in an absolute way by a total self-donation. There is no longer sacred or profane, natural or supernatural, mortification or prayer - because it is one and the same Spirit who brings it about that the Christian will "love God in all things - and all things in God." Hence, Jesuits have always been active in the graphic and dramatic arts, literature and the sciences.
Examen of Consciousness
The Examen of Consciousness is a simple prayer directed toward developing a spiritual sensitivity to the special ways God approaches, invites, and calls. Ignatius recommends that the examen be done at least twice, and suggests five points of prayer:
* Recalling that one is in the holy presence of God
* Thanking God for all the blessings one has received
* Examining how one has lived his day
* Asking God for forgiveness
* Resolution and offering a prayer of hopeful recommitment
It is important, however, that the person feels free to structure the Examen in a way that is most helpful to him. There is no right way to do it; nor is there a need to go through all of the five points each time. A person might, for instance, find himself spending the entire time on only one or two points. The basic rule is: Go wherever God draws you. And this touches upon an important point: the Examen of Consciousness is primarily a time of prayer; it is a "being with God." It focuses on one's consciousness of God, not necessarily one's conscience regarding sins and mistakes.
Discernment
Discernment is rooted in the understanding that God is ever at work in one's life, "inviting, directing, guiding and drawing" one "into the fullness of life." Its central action is reflection on the ordinary events of one's life. It presupposes an ability to reflect on the ordinary events of one's life, a habit of personal prayer, self-knowledge, knowledge of one's deepest desires and openness to God's direction and guidance. Discernment is a prayerful 'pondering' or 'mulling over' the choices a person wishes to consider. In his discernment, the person's focus should be on a quiet attentiveness to God and sensing rather than thinking. His goal is to understand the choices in his heart: to see them, as it were, as God might see them. In one sense, there is no limit to how long he might wish to continue in this. Discernment is a repetitive process, yet as the person continues, some choices should of their own accord fall by the wayside while others should gain clarity and focus. It is a process that should move inexorably toward a decision.
Service and Humility
Ignatius emphasized the active expression of God's love in life and the need to be self-forgetful in humility. Part of Jesuit formation is the undertaking of service specifically to the poor and sick in the most humble ways: Ignatius wanted Jesuits in training to serve part of their time as novices and in tertianship (see
Formation below) as the equivalent of orderlies in hospitals, for instance, emptying bed pans and washing patients, to learn humility and loving service. Jesuit educational institutions often adopt mottoes and mission statements that include the idea of making students "men for others," and the like. Jesuit missions have generally included medical clinics, schools and agricultural development projects as ways to serve the poor or needy while preaching the Gospel.
Jesuit formation
The training of Jesuits seeks to prepare men spiritually, academically and practically for the ministries they will be called to offer the Church and world. Ignatius of Loyola was strongly influenced by the Renaissance and wanted Jesuits to be able to offer whatever ministries were most needed at any given moment, and especially, to be ready to respond to missions (assignments) from the Pope. Formation for Priesthood normally takes up to 14 years, depending on the man's background and previous education, and final vows are taken several years after that, making Jesuit training among the longest of any of the religious orders.
- Candidacy is an informal precursor to becoming a Jesuit, wherein a man interested in joining the Jesuits explores his calling with a spiritual director. The candidate attends Jesuit vocation events, including retreats and discussions with other candidates and Jesuits. Candidacy can last any length of time, with the norm being about a year. During this time, the candidate may or may not live in a Jesuit community.
- Novitiate is the first stage of formation. The Novice begins to live the three vows of poverty, chastity, obedience (though he has not yet vowed himself publicly), completes the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola, learns about the history and practice of the order and enters into a series of “experiments.” These experiments are usually short ministerial assignments where the novice tests his aptitude for various ministries, such as, teaching, working with the marginalized or giving retreats. The novitiate lasts 2 years. Jesuit novices place the letters "n. S.J." after their names.
At this point, the novice pronounces his First Vows (perpetual Simple vows of poverty, chastity and obedience and a vow to persevere to final profession and ordination) and becomes either a Scholastic (entering onto the path of priesthood) or a Jesuit brother (technically known as a "temporal coadjutor," but officially styled "brother" today). The scholastics (who are addressed by the title "Mister") and the Brothers (addressed by the title "Brother") of the Society of Jesus have different courses of study, although they often overlap.
For scholastics, the usual course of studies is as follows:
- First Studies is the period when the scholastic begins his academic training. Depending on his prior education it will last 2–4 years, guaranteeing a grounding in philosophy and the attainment of at least a first university level degree thus, in the United States, a four-year bachelor's degree, unless this has already been earned). It may also introduce the study of theology or some other specialized area.
- As Jesuits serve on the faculties of high schools and universities, and in a wide variety of other positions, the Jesuit scholastic or Jesuit priest often earns a master or doctoral degree on some area - it may be, for instance, Theology or it may be History, English, Chemistry, Educational Administration, Law or any other subject. Hence, a Jesuit may spend another few years earning a graduate degree beyond the bachelor's.
- Regency is the next stage, wherein the scholastic lives and works in a typical Jesuit community (as opposed to the “formation communities” he has lived in so far). He is engaged full-time in ministry (an Apostolate), which is traditionally teaching in a secondary school, but it may be any ministry Jesuits are engaged in. Regency lasts for 2–3 years.
- Theology is the stage immediately preceding ordination. By universal canon law, every candidate for priestly ordination must complete four years of theology studies, though part of this requirement may have been met in first studies. This will include the attainment of a first degree in theology (such as the Bachelor of Sacred Theology), and usually a second (masters level) degree in a specialized area related to theology. (As such, it is not uncommon for a Jesuit to hold a master's level degree in Theology, and, as mentioned above, a second master's or a doctorate in a completely different field.)
- Ordination follows, and the new priest may receive a ministerial assignment or be sent back for further studies in any academic field.
- The ordained Jesuit priest will either be chosen for profession as a "spiritual coadjutor," taking the usual perpetual vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, or for profession as a "professed of the four vows."
- Those who are destined by his superiors for profession for the four vows under take Tertianship, so named because it is something like a third year of novitiate, which follows within a few years of ordination. After his first fews years of experience of ministry as a priest, the Jesuit completes the final stage of formal formation by revisiting the essentials of Jesuit life which he learned as a novice: once again, he studies the history and Constitutions of the Jesuits, he makes the Spiritual Exercises and participates in experimentism, most often by serving in ministries to the sick, terminally ill or poor.
- Final Vows for the fully professed follow upon tertianship, wherein the Jesuit pronounces perpetual solemn vows of poverty, chastity, obedience, and the Fourth vow, unique to Jesuits, of special obedience to the pope in matters regarding mission, promising to undertake any mission laid out in the Formula of the Institute the pope may choose.
- Only the professed of the four vows are eligible for posts like novice master, provincial superior or assistant to the general of the society.
- The professed of the four vows take, in addition to these solemn perpetual vows five additional simple vows: not to consent to any mitigation of the Society's observance of poverty; not to "ambition" or seek any prelacies (ecclesiastical offices) outside the Society; not to ambition any offices within the Society; a commitment to report any Jesuit who does so ambition; and, if a Jesuit does become a bishop, to permit the general to continue to provide advice to that bishop, though the vow of obedience to Jesuit superiors is not operative over matters the man undertakes as bishop. Under these vows, no Jesuit may "campaign" or even offer his name for appointment or election to any office, and if chosen for one must remind the appointing authority (even the Pope) of these vows — if the Pope commands that the Jesuit accept ordination as a bishop anyway, the Jesuit must keep an open ear to the Jesuit general as an influence.
The formation of Jesuit brothers has a much less structured form. Prior to the
Second Vatican Council, Jesuit brothers worked almost exclusively within Jesuit communities as cooks, tailors, farmers, secretaries, accountants, librarians and maintenance support - they were thus technically known as "temporal coadjutors," as they assisted the professed priests by undertaking the more "worldly' jobs, freeing the professed of the four vows and the "spiritual coadjutors" to undertake the sacramental and spiritual missions of the Society. Following the Second Vatican Council, which recognized the mission of all the Christian faithful, not just those who are ordained, to share in the ministries of the Church, Jesuit brothers began to engage in ministries outside of their communities. Today, the formation of a Jesuit brother may take many forms, depending on his aptitude for ministry. He may pursue a highly academic formation which mirrors that of the scholastics (there are, for instance, some Jesuit brothers who serve as university professors), or he may pursue more practical training in areas such as pastoral counseling or spiritual direction (some assist in giving retreats, for instance), or he may continue in the traditional “supporting” roles in which so many Jesuit brothers have attained notable levels of holiness (as administrative aides, for example). Since Vatican II the Society has officially adopted the term "brother," which was always the unofficial form of address for the temporal coadjutors.
Regardless of the practical details, Jesuit formation is meant to form men who are open and ready to serve whatever is the Church’s current need. Today, all Jesuits are expected to learn English language, and those who speak English as a first language are expected to learn Spanish language.
Government of the Society
The Society is headed by a Superior General. In the Jesuit Order, the formal title of the Superior General is "Praepositus Generalis," Latin for General President, more commonly called Father General or General, who is elected by the General Congregation for life or until he resigns, is confirmed by the Pope, and has absolute authority in running the Society.
He is assisted by "assistants," each of whom heads an "assistancy," which is either a geographic area (for instance, the North American Assistancy) or an area of ministry (for instance, higher education). The assistants normally reside with the General Superior in Rome. The assistants, together with a number of other advisors, form an advisory council to the General. A vicar general and secretary of the Society run day-to-day administration. The General is also requ
" trigram comprises the first three Greek letters of "IHΣOYΣ" (Jesus), later interpreted as "Iesus Homini Salvator",
Jesus, Saviour of Mankind and as "Iesum Habemus Socium",
We have Jesus as CompanionThe
Society of Jesus, (,
S.J. and
S.I.) is a Christian religious order of the
Roman Catholic Church in service to the universal Church, whose members are called
Jesuits,
Soldiers of Jesus Christ, and
Foot soldiers of the Pope, because the founder, Saint
Ignatius of Loyola, was a
knight before becoming a Holy Orders.
Today, Jesuits number 20,170 (14,147 priests), and are the largest male religious order of the Roman Catholic Church (the Franciscan family of orders Franciscans,
Order of Friars Minor Capuchin, and Conventual Franciscans has some 31,899 members priests).
Jesuit priests and brothers are engaged in religious ministry in 112 nations on six continents. No work, if it has an evangelical perspective, is closed to them, but they are best known in the fields of education (schools, colleges, universities, seminaries, theological faculties),
intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. They are also known in missionary work and direct evangelization,
social justice and
human rights activities, interreligious dialogue, and other 'frontier' ministry.
The Society of Jesus is consecrated under the
patron saint of
Madonna Della Strada, a title of the
Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a
Superior General of the Society of Jesus, currently
Peter Hans Kolvenbach.
The headquarters of the Society, called Curia, is in Rome. The history curia of St Ignatius is now part of the
Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church.
History
Foundation
On
August 15,
1534,
Ignatius of Loyola (born Íñigo López de Loyola—he changed his first name to match that of
Ignatius of Antioch), a Spaniard of Basque people origin, and six other students at the
University of Paris (Francis Xavier, Alfonso Salmeron, Diego Laynez, and Nicolás Bobadilla all from Spain, Peter Faber from
Savoy in
France, and
Simão Rodrigues from Portugal) met in
Montmartre outside Paris, probably either at
Saint Pierre de Montmartre (the local abbey) or near the modern Chapel of St Denys, Rue Antoinette.
This group bound themselves by a vow of poverty and chastity, to "enter upon hospital and
missionary work in
Jerusalem, or to go without questioning wherever the pope might direct".
They called themselves the Company of Jesus, because they felt
they were placed together by Christ. The name had echoes of the military (as in an infantry "
Company (military unit)"), as well as of discipleship (the "companions" of Jesus). The word "company" comes ultimately from Latin,
cum +
pane = "bread with," or a group that shares meals.
These initial steps led to the founding of what would be called the Society of Jesus later in 1540. The term
societas in Latin is derived from
socius, a partner or comrade.
Much is sometimes made of Ignatius' military background; in fact nowhere in the Constitutions of the order is the Society of Jesus compared to an army.
In 1537, they travelled to Italy to seek papal approval for their
Order (religious). Pope Paul III gave them a commendation, and permitted them to be ordained priests.
They were ordained at Venice by the bishop of
Arbe (June 24). They devoted themselves to preaching and charitable work in Italy, as the renewed
Italian War of 1535-1538 between
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Venice, the pope and the
Ottoman Empire rendered any journey to Jerusalem impossible.
With
Peter Faber, Diego Lainez,
Francis Xavier and other less known early companions Ignatius made his way to Rome in October 1538, to offer their priestly services to the pope. When it was clear that the missions given them by the Pope would lead to a break-up of the group of
Friends in the Lord they decided to bind themselves spiritually together by obedience to a superior.
They presented the project to the Pope. A congregation of
Cardinal (Catholicism)s reported favorably upon the Constitution presented, and Paul III confirmed the order through the Papal bull
Regimini militantis ecclesiae (September 27,
1540), but limited the number of its members to sixty. This is the founding document of the Jesuits as an official Catholic religious order.
This limitation was removed through the bull
Injunctum nobis (March 14, 1543). Ignatius was chosen as the first superior-general. He sent his companions as missionaries around Europe to create schools, colleges, and seminaries.Hopfl, Harro (2004) "Jesuit Political Thought: The Society of Jesus and the State, C.1540-1630"
Cambridge University Press. 426 pp. ISBN 0-521-83779-0.
When developed, Jesuits concentrated on three activities. First, they founded schools throughout Europe. Jesuit teachers were rigorously trained in both classical studies and theology. The Jesuits' second mission was to convert non-Christians to Catholicism, so they developed and sent out missionaries. Their third goal was to stop Protestantism from spreading. The zeal of the Jesuits overcame the drift toward Protestantism in Poland-Lithuania and southern Germany.
Ignatius wrote the Jesuit
Constitutions, adopted in 1554, which created a tightly centralized organization and stressed absolute self-abnegation and obedience to Pope and superiors (
perinde ac cadaver, " like a corpse" as Ignatius put it).
His main principle became the unofficial Jesuit motto:
Ad Maiorem Dei Gloriam ("For the greater glory of God"). This phrase is designed to reflect the idea that any work that is not evil can be meritorious for the spiritual life if it is performed with this intention, even things considered normally indifferent.
The Society of Jesus is classified among institutes as a mendicant order of cleric, that is, a body of priests organized for
apostolic work, following a religious order
governance, and relying on alms, or donations, for support.
The term "Jesuit" (of
15th century origin, meaning
one who used too frequently or appropriated the name of Jesus), was first applied to the Society in reproach (
1544-1552), and was never employed by its founder, though members and friends of the Society in time appropriated the name in its positive meaning.
Early works
, 1598The Jesuits were founded just before the
Counter-Reformation (or at least before the date those historians with a classical view of the counter reformation hold to be the beginning of the Counter-Reformation), a movement whose purpose was to reform the Catholic Church from within and to counter the
Protestant Reformation, whose teachings were spreading throughout Catholicism Europe.
As part of their service to the Roman Church, the Jesuits encouraged people to continue their obedience to scripture as interpreted by Catholic
doctrine. Ignatius is known to have written:
"I will believe that the white that I see is black if the hierarchical Church so defines it."Cheyne, Colin (2001) "Knowledge, Cause, and Abstract Objects: Causal Objections to Platonism"
Springer 252 pp. ISBN 1-4020-0051-0.
But his hyperbole relativizes propositional claims defined by the hierarchical Church. For him, the important things in life are not propositional definitions, but the spiritual movements within oneself.
Ignatius and the early Jesuits did recognize, though, that the hierarchical Church was in dire need of reform, and some of their greatest struggles were against corruption,
venality, and spiritual lassitude within the Roman Catholic Church.
Ignatius's insistence on an extremely high level of academic preparation for ministry, for instance, was a deliberate response to the relatively poor education of much of the clergy of his time, and the Jesuit vow against "ambitioning prelacies" was a deliberate effort to prevent greed for money or power invading Jesuit circles.
As a result, in spite of their loyalty, Ignatius and his successors often tangled with the pope and the Roman Curia. Over the 450 years since its founding, the Society has both been called the papal "elite troops" and been forced into
Suppression of the Jesuits.
St. Ignatius and the Jesuits who followed him believed that the reform of the Church had to begin with the conversion of an individual’s heart. One of the main tools the Jesuits have used to bring about this conversion has been the Ignatian retreat, called the
Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola.
During a four-week period of silence, individuals undergo a series of directed meditations on the life of Christ. During this period, they meet regularly with a spiritual director, who helps them understand whatever call or message God has offered in their meditations.
The retreat follows a Purgative-Illuminative-Unitive pattern in the tradition of the mysticism of
John Cassian and the
Desert Fathers. Ignatius' innovation was to make this style of contemplative mysticism available to all people in active life, and to use it as a means of rebuilding the spiritual life of the Church. The Exercises became both the basis for the training of Jesuits themselves and one of the essential ministries of the order: giving the exercises to others in what became known as retreats.
The Jesuits’ contributions to the late
Renaissance were significant in their roles both as a missionary order and as the first religious order to operate
colleges and
university as a principal and distinct ministry.
By the time of Ignatius' death in 1556, the Jesuits were already operating a network of 74 colleges on three continents. A precursor to liberal arts, the Jesuit plan of studies incorporated the Classical teachings of Renaissance humanism into the Scholastic structure of Catholic thought.
In addition to teaching
faith, the
Ratio Studiorum emphasized the study of Latin,
Greek language, classical literature,
poetry, and philosophy as well as non-European languages,
sciences and the arts. Furthermore, Jesuit schools encouraged the study of vernacular literature and
rhetoric, and thereby became important centers for the training of lawyers and public officials.
The Jesuit schools played an important part in winning back to Catholicism a number of European countries which had for a time been predominantly Protestant, notably Poland and
Lithuania. Today, Jesuit colleges and universities are located in over one hundred nations around the world.
Under the notion that God can be encountered through created things and especially art, they encouraged the use of ceremony and decoration in Catholic ritual and devotion. Perhaps as a result of this appreciation for art, coupled with their spiritual practice of "finding God in all things", many early Jesuits distinguished themselves in the visual and performing arts as well as in music.
The Jesuits were able to obtain significant influence in the
Early Modern Period because Jesuit priests often acted as confessions to the Monarch of the time. They were an important force in the Counter-Reformation and in the Catholic missions, in part because their relatively loose structure (without the requirements of living in community, saying the Liturgy of the Hours together, etc.) allowed them to be flexible to meet the needs of the people at the time.
Expansion
in Paraguay, one of the many Jesuit missions established in South America during the 17th and 18th centuries, painting from 1779.Early missions in
Japan resulted in the government granting the Jesuits the feudal fiefdom of
Nagasaki in
1580. However, this was removed in
1587 due to fears over their growing influence.
Francis Xavier arrived in Goa, in Western
India in 1541 to consider evangelical service in the Indies. He died after a decade of evangelism in Southern India. Two Jesuit missionaries,
Johann Gruber and Albert D'Orville, reached Lhasa in
Tibet in 1661.
Jesuit
Mission (Christian)s in Latin America were very controversial in Europe, especially in Spain and Portugal, where they were seen as interfering with the proper colonial enterprises of the royal governments. The Jesuits were often the only force standing between the Indigenous peoples of the Americas and slavery. Together throughout
South America but especially in present-day
Brazil and
Paraguay they formed Christian Native American city-states, called "
Jesuit Reductions" (Spanish
Reducciones, Portuguese
Reduções). These were societies set up according to an idealized
theocracy model. It is partly because the Jesuits protected the natives whom certain Spanish and Portuguese colonizers wanted to enslave that the Society of Jesus was suppressed. (As seen in the 1986 award winning film "The Mission (film)".)
Jesuit priests such as Manuel da Nóbrega and José de Anchieta founded several towns in Brazil in the
16th century, including
São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, and were very influential in the
pacification,
religious conversion and education of
AmerindiansThere were several Jesuit missions in China.
Jesuit scholars working in these foreign missions were very important in understanding their unknown languages and strived to produce Latinicized
grammars and
dictionaries. This was done, for instance, for Japanese language (see
Nippo jisho also known as
Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam, a Japanese-Portuguese dictionary written 1603) and
Tupi-Guarani (a language group of South American aborigines).
Jean François Pons in the 1740s pioneered the study of
Sanskrit in the West.
Under Portuguese royal patronage, the order thrived in Goa and until 1759 successfully expanded its activities to education and healthcare. On 17 December 1759, Marquis of Pombal,
Secretary of State in Portugal expelled the Jesuits from Portugal and Portuguese possessions overseas.
Jesuit activity in China
The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, then undergoing its own revolution, to China. The Society of Jesus introduced, according to Thomas Woods, "a substantial body of scientific knowledge and a vast array of mental tools for understanding the physical universe, including the Euclidean geometry that made planetary motion comprehensible." Another expert quoted by Woods said the scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when science was at a very low level in China:
Conversely, the Jesuits were very active in transmitting Chinese knowledge to Europe. Confucius's works were translated into European languages through the agency of Jesuit scholars stationed in China.
Matteo Ricci started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and father Prospero Intorcetta published the life and works of Confucius into Latin in
1687."Windows into China", John Parker, p.25 It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the
Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into
Christianity."Windows into China", John Parker, p.25, ISBN 0890730504"The Eastern origins of Western civilization", John Hobson, p194-195, ISBN 0521547245
The French
physiocrat François Quesnay, founder of modern economics, and a forerunner of
Adam Smith was in his lifetime known as "the European Confucius".FORERUNNERS OF HENRY GEORGEby Samuel Milliken, Online source The doctrine and even the name of "Laissez-faire" may have been inspired by the Chinese concept of
Wu wei. 1 Source"The Eastern Origins of Western Civilization", John M. Hobson, p.196 Goethe, was known as "the Confucius of
Weimar".Quarterly Review of Comparatice Education Online source
Suppression and restoration
is the home to the world's largest Jesuit communityThe Suppression of the Jesuits in
Portugal, France, the
Two Sicilies, Duchy of Parma and the Spanish Empire by 1767 was troubling to the Society's defender, Pope Clement XIII. A decree signed under secular pressure by
Pope Clement XIV in July 1773 suppressed the Order. The suppression was carried out in all countries except
Prussia and Russia, where Catherine the Great had forbidden the pope decree to be executed. Because millions of Catholics (including many Jesuits) lived in the Polish western provinces of the Russian Empire, the Society was able to maintain its existence and carry on its work all through the period of suppression. Subsequently, Pope
Pius VI would grant formal permission for the continuation of the Society in Russia and Poland. Based on that permission, Stanislaus Czerniewicz was elected superior of the Society in 1782.
Pius VII during his captivity in France, had resolved to restore the Jesuits universally; and after his return to Rome he did so with little delay: on 7 August,
1814, by the Bull
Solicitudo omnium ecclesiarum, he reversed the suppression of the Order and therewith, the then Superior in Russia, Thaddeus Brzozowski, who had been elected in 1805, acquired universal jurisdiction.
The period following the Restoration of the Jesuits in 1814 was marked by tremendous growth, as evidenced by the large number of Jesuit colleges and universities established in the
19th century. In the
United States, 22 of the Society's 28 universities were founded or taken over by the Jesuits during this time. Some claim that the experience of suppression served to heighten orthodoxy among the Jesuits upon restoration. While this claim is debatable, Jesuits were generally supportive of Papal authority within the Church, and some members were associated with the Ultramontanist movement and the declaration of Papal Infallibility in 1870.
In
Switzerland, following the defeat of the Ultramontanism Sonderbund by Calvinist cantons, the Swiss Federal Constitution was modified and Jesuits were banished in 1848. The ban was lifted on
20 May 1973, when 54.9% of voters accepted a referendum modifying the Constitution. Official results (in
French language) on the website of the Swiss Administration.
The 20th century witnessed both aspects of growth and decline. Following a trend within the Catholic priesthood at large, Jesuit numbers peaked in the 1950s and have declined steadily since. Meanwhile the number of Jesuit institutions has grown considerably, due in large part to a late 20th century focus on the establishment of Jesuit secondary schools in inner-city areas and an increase in lay association with the order. Among the notable Jesuits of the 20th century, John Courtney Murray, SJ, was called one of the "architects of the
Second Vatican Council" and drafted what eventually became the council's endorsement of religious freedom,
Dignitatis Humanae Personae in apparent contradiction of Pope Eugene IV's Domini Cantate.
Jesuits today
{| align="right" class="wikitable"! Current Jesuit Cardinals! Date of Birth
Current Age! Elevated to Cardinal|-|
Jorge Bergoglio Archbishop of
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Buenos Aires| December 17, 1936
-1-1936+|11|28-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->+-1-->|12|31-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->-/-1-->|12|31-->-->-->-->-0.49 round 0--> years, |11|28-->+-1-->|12|31-->---> mod -1-->|12|31-->--> days| February 21, 2001
Pope John Paul II|-| Julius Darmaatmadja
Archbishop of
Bishops and Archbishops of Jakarta| December 20, 1934
-1-1934+|11|28-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->+-1-->|12|31-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->-/-1-->|12|31-->-->-->-->-0.49 round 0--> years, |11|28-->+-1-->|12|31-->---> mod -1-->|12|31-->--> days| November 26, 1994
Pope John Paul II|-|
Avery Dulles priest| August 24, 1918
-1-1918+|11|28-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->+-1-->|12|31-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->-/-1-->|12|31-->-->-->-->-0.49 round 0--> years, |11|28-->+-1-->|12|31-->---> mod -1-->|12|31-->--> days| February 21, 2001
Pope John Paul II|-|
Ján Chryzostom Korec Bishop
Emeritus of
Nitra
Archbishop Emeritus of [Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan| February 15, 1927
-1-1927+|11|28-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->+-1-->|12|31-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->-/-1-->|12|31-->-->-->-->-0.49 round 0--> years, |11|28-->+-1-->|12|31-->---> mod -1-->|12|31-->--> days| February 2, 1983
Pope John Paul II|-| Urbano
Cardinal Navarrete Cortés
priest| May 25, 1920
-1-1920+|11|28-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->+-1-->|12|31-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->-/-1-->|12|31-->-->-->-->-0.49 round 0--> years, |11|28-->+-1-->|12|31-->---> mod -1-->|12|31-->--> days| November 24, 2007
Pope Benedict XVI|-| Paul Shan Kuo-hsi
Bishop
Emeritus of
Kaohsiung
priest| December 17, 1919
-1-1919+|11|28-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->+-1-->|12|31-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->-/-1-->|12|31-->-->-->-->-0.49 round 0--> years, |11|28-->+-1-->|12|31-->---> mod -1-->|12|31-->--> days| October 21, 2003
Pope John Paul II|-| [Roberto Tucci priest| April 19, 1921
-1-1921+|11|28-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->+-1-->|12|31-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->-/-1-->|12|31-->-->-->-->-0.49 round 0--> years, |11|28-->+-1-->|12|31-->---> mod -1-->|12|31-->--> days| February 21, 2001
Pope John Paul II|-| Albert Vanhoye
priest| July 23, 1923
-1-1923+|11|28-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->+-1-->|12|31-->/-1-->|12|31-->-->-/-1-->|12|31-->-->-->-->-0.49 round 0--> years, |11|28-->+-1-->|12|31-->---> mod -1-->|12|31-->--> days| March 24, 2006
Pope Benedict XVI|}The Jesuits today form the largest
religious order of priests in the Catholic Church, with over 20,000 members serving in 112 nations on six continents, the largest number being in India followed by those in the United States. The current
Superior General of the Society of Jesus of the Jesuits is
Peter Hans Kolvenbach. The Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of
missionary work,
human rights,
social justice and, most notably,
higher education. It operates colleges and universities in various countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines and India. In the United States alone, it maintains over 50 colleges, universities and high schools. A typical conception of the mission of a Jesuit school will often contain such concepts as proposing Christ as the model of human life, the pursuit of excellence in teaching and learning and life-long spiritual and intellectual growth. St. Aloysius College mission statement. In Latin America, Liberal Jesuits have had significant influence in the development of
liberation theology, a movement which has been highly controversial in the Catholic theological community and condemned by Pope John Paul II on several fundamental aspects.
Under Superior General
Pedro Arrupe,
social justice and the preferential option for the poor emerged as dominant themes of the work of the Jesuits. On November 16,
1989, six Jesuit priests (
Ignacio Ellacuria, Segundo Montes,
Ignacio Martin-Baro, Joaquin Lopez y Lopez, Juan Ramon Moreno, and Amado Lopez); their housekeeper, Elba Ramos; and her daughter, Celia Marisela Ramos, were murdered by the El Salvador military on the campus of the University of Central America in
San Salvador, El Salvador because they had been labeled as subversives by the government. The assassinations galvanized the Society's peace and justice movements, including annual protests at the
Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation at
Fort Benning, Georgia, Georgia (U.S. state), where the assassins were trained under US government sponsorship.
In 2002, Boston College president William P. Leahy, SJ, initiated the Church in the 21st Century program as a means of moving the Church "from crisis to renewal." The initiative has provided the Society with a platform for examining issues brought about by the worldwide Roman Catholic sex abuse cases, including the priesthood,
celibacy, Human sexuality, women's roles, and the role of the
laity.
On January 6, 2005, Fr.
Peter Hans Kolvenbach, on the occasion of the Jubilee Year, wrote that the Jesuits "should truly profit from the jubilee year to examine our way of life and taking the means to live more profoundly the charisms received from our Founders." Letter to major superiors, 6 January 2005.
In April 2005,
Thomas J. Reese, SJ, editor of the American Jesuit weekly magazine
America (magazine), resigned at the request of the Society. The move was widely published in the media as the result of pressure from the Vatican, following years of criticism by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith on articles touching subjects such as
AIDS, religious pluralism, homosexuality and the right of life for the unborn. Reese is currently on a year-long sabbatical at Santa Clara University. to the
Pontifical Gregorian University, "one of the greatest services the Society of Jesus carries out for the universal Church."On February 2, 2006, Fr. Peter Hans Kolvenbach, informed members of the Society of Jesus, that with the consent of
Pope Benedict XVI, he intends to step down as Superior General in 2008, the year he will turn 80. The 35th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus that will elect a new superior general, and decide other important policy for the Jesuit order in the years to come, will convene on 5 January 2008, in Rome. While the Jesuit superior general is elected for life, the order's constitutions allow him to step down.
On April 22, 2006, Feast of Our Lady, Mother of the Society of Jesus, Pope Benedict greeted thousands of Jesuits on pilgrimage to Rome, and took the opportunity to thank God "for having granted to your Company the gift of men of extraordinary sanctity and of exceptional apostolic zeal such as St Ignatius of Loyola, St Francis Xavier and Bl Peter Faber." He said "St Ignatius of Loyola was above all a man of God, who gave the first place of his life to God, to his greater glory and his greater service. He was a man of profound prayer, which found its center and its culmination in the daily Eucharistic Celebration." Address of Benedict XVI to the Jesuits, April 22, 2006.
In May 2006, Benedict XVI also wrote a letter to Fr. Peter Hans Kolvenbach on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of Pope Pius XII's encyclical "Haurietis Aquas," on devotion to the Sacred Heart, because the Jesuits have always been "extremely active in the promotion of this essential devotion." Benedict XVI Hails Devotion to Sacred Heart, May 23, 2006. In his November 3, 2006 visit to the Pontifical Gregorian University, Benedict XVI cited the university as "one of the greatest services that the Society of Jesus carries out for the universal Church." Benedict XVI's visit to the Gregorian University.
Ignatian spirituality
. According to Benedict XVI, the Jesuits have always been "extremely active in the promotion of this essential devotion."Like all Catholic spirituality, the spirituality practiced by the Jesuits, called Ignatian spirituality, is based on the Catholic faith and the gospels. Aside from the "Constitutions," "The Letters," and "Autobiography," Ignatian spirituality draws most specially from St. Ignatius' "Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola," whose purpose is "to conquer oneself and to regulate one's life in such a way that nodecision is made under the influence of any inordinate attachment." In other words, the Exercises are intended, in Ignatius' view, to give the exercitant (the person undertaking them) a greater degree of freedom from his or her own likes, dislikes, comforts, wants, needs, drives, appetites and passions that they may choose based solely on what they discern God's will is for them.
In the words of Kolvenbach, the Exercises try to "unite two apparently incompatible realities:
exercises and
spiritual." It invites to "unlimited generosity" in contemplating God, yet going down to the level of many details. Discourse given to the Rome Consultation, 16 February 2003.
Ignatian spirituality can be described as an active attentiveness to God joined with a prompt responsiveness to God, who is ever active in people's lives. Though it includes many forms of prayer, discernment, and apostolic service, it is the interior dispositions of attentiveness and responsiveness that are ultimately crucial. The result is that Ignatian spirituality has a remarkable 'nowness,' both in its attentiveness to God and in its desire to respond to what God is asking of the person now.Charles J. Jackson,
Ignatian Spirituality.
The Ignatian ideal has the following characteristics:Pinard De La Boullaye,
Ignatian Spirituality.
God's greater glory
St Ignatius of Loyola —"a man who gave the first place of his life to God" says
Benedict XVI— stressed that "Man is created to praise, reverence, and serve God Our Lord and by this means to save his soul." This is the "First Principle and Foundation" of the Exercises. Ignatius declares: "The goal of our life is to live with God forever. God who loves us, gave us life. Our own response of love allows God's life to flow into us without limit... Our only desire and our one choice should be this: I want and I choose what better leads to the deepening of God's life in me."
Union with JesusIgnatius emphasized an ardent love for the Savior. In his Exercises, he devoted the last weeks to the contemplation of Jesus: from infancy and public ministry, to his passion and lastly his risen life. The Spiritual Exercises, in 104, sum this up in a prayer: "Lord, grant that I may see thee more clearly, love thee more dearly, follow thee more nearly." There is a great emphasis on the emotions in Ignatius' methods, and a call for the person to be very sensitive to the emotional movements that shape them.
Self-awareness
Ignatius recommends the twice daily examen. This is a guided method of prayerfully reviewing the events of a day to awaken an inner sensitivity to one's own actions, desires, and spiritual state through each moment reviewed. The goals are to see where God is challenging the person to change and growth, where God is calling the person to deeper reflection (this is particularly apt when discerning whether one has a
jesuit vocation in life), and where sinful or imperfect attitudes or blind spots are. The general examen, often at the end of the day, is, as the name implies, a general review. The particular examen, often in the middle of the day, focuses on a particular fault identified by the person to be worked on over some days or weeks.
Spiritual direction
Meditation and contemplation, and for instance the aforementioned examen, are best guided, Ignatius says, by an experienced person. Jesuits, and those following Ignatian spirituality, meet with their spiritual director (traditionally a priest, though in recent years many laypersons have undertaken this role) on a regular basis (weekly or monthly) to discuss the fruits of their prayer life and be offered guidance. Ignatius sees the director as someone who can rein in impulsiveness or excesses, goad the complacent, and keep people honest with themselves. If the director is a priest, spiritual direction may or may not be connected with the Sacrament of Penance. Ignatius counseled frequent use of sacrament and while some directors see them as integrally linked, others hold them to be two separate relationships.http://www.st-ignatius.net/events_docs/Ignatian%20Day%20Lecture%208-1-05%20_1_.pdf
Effective love
The founder of the Society of Jesus put effective love (love shown in deeds) above affective love (love based on nice feelings). He usually ended his most important letters with "I implore God to grant us all the grace to know His holy will and to accomplish it perfectly." True and perfect love demands sacrifice, the abandonment of tastes and personal preferences, and the perfect renunciation of self. This can be taken together with the prayer for generosity, which asks for teaching to be generous, to serve God as God deserves without counting any cost or seeking any reward except knowing that one is doing God's will.
Detachment
Where
Francis of Assisi's concept of poverty emphasized the spiritual benefits of simplicity and dependency, Ignatius emphasized detachment, or "indifference." For Ignatius, whether one was rich or poor, healthy or sick, in an assignment one enjoyed or one didn't, was comfortable in a culture or not, etc., should be a matter of spiritual indifference—a modern phrasing might put it as serene acceptance. Hence, a Jesuit (or one following Ignatian spirituality), placed in a comfortable, wealthy neighborhood should continue to live the Gospel life without anxiety or possessiveness, and if plucked instantly from that situation to be placed in a poor area and subjected to hardships should simply cheerfully accept that as well, without a sense of loss or being deprived.
Prayers, efforts at self-conquest and reflection
Ignatius's little book, the
Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola is a fruit of months of prayer, and it is through prayer that one gets to understand Ignatian Spirituality. Jesuits stress the need to take time to reflect and to pray because prayer is at the foundation of Jesus's life. Prayer, in Ignatian spirituality, does not dispense from "helping oneself," a phrase frequently used by Ignatius. Thus, he also speaks of mortification and of amendment.
hung his military accoutrements before the image of the Virgin of Montserrat. Then he led a period of asceticism to found the Society of Jesus.
Devotion to the Sacred Heart, the Eucharist and our Lady
The Society of Jesus has a relationship with the
Order of the Visitation of Holy Mary in a commitment to spread the devotion to the Sacred Heart (though the concept of devotion to Christ's mercy, as symbolized in the image of the Sacred Heart, is more ancient, its modern origins can be traced to St.
Marie Alacoque, a Visitation nun, whose spiritual director was St.
Claude de la Colombière). The Jesuits particularly promoted this devotion to emphasize the compassion and overwhelming love of Christ for people, and to counteract the rigorism and spiritual pessimism of the
Jansenists.
St. Ignatius counseled souls to receive the Eucharist more often, and from the order's earliest days the Jesuits were promoters of "frequent communion". It should be noted that it was the custom for many Catholics before this time to receive communion perhaps once or twice a year, out of what Catholic theologians considered an exaggerated respect for the sacrament; Ignatius and others advocated communion at least monthly, emphasizing communion not as reward but as spiritual food; by the time of Pope St.
Pius X, "frequent communion" had come to mean weekly and even daily reception of the Eucharist.
Ignatius made his initial commitment to a new way of life by leaving his soldier's weapons (and symbolically, his old values) on an altar before an image of the Christ child seated on the lap of Our Lady of Montserrat. The Jesuits were long promoters of the Sodality of Our Lady, their primary organization for their students until the 1960s, which they used to encourage frequent attendance at Mass, reception of communion, daily recitation of the Rosary, and attendance at retreats in the Ignatian tradition of the Spiritual Exercises.
Zeal for souls
The purpose of the Order, says the
Summary of the Constitutions, is "not only to apply one's self to one's own salvation and to perfection with the help of divine grace but to employ all one's strength, for the salvation and perfection of one's neighbor."
Finding God in All Things
The vision that Ignatius places at the beginning of the Exercises keeps sight of both the Creator and the creature, the One and the other swept along in the same movement of love. In it, God offers himself to humankind in an absolute way through the Son, and humankind responds in an absolute way by a total self-donation. There is no longer sacred or profane, natural or supernatural, mortification or prayer - because it is one and the same Spirit who brings it about that the Christian will "love God in all things - and all things in God." Hence, Jesuits have always been active in the graphic and dramatic arts, literature and the sciences.
Examen of Consciousness
The Examen of Consciousness is a simple prayer directed toward developing a spiritual sensitivity to the special ways God approaches, invites, and calls. Ignatius recommends that the examen be done at least twice, and suggests five points of prayer:
* Recalling that one is in the holy presence of God
* Thanking God for all the blessings one has received
* Examining how one has lived his day
* Asking God for forgiveness
* Resolution and offering a prayer of hopeful recommitment
It is important, however, that the person feels free to structure the Examen in a way that is most helpful to him. There is no right way to do it; nor is there a need to go through all of the five points each time. A person might, for instance, find himself spending the entire time on only one or two points. The basic rule is: Go wherever God draws you. And this touches upon an important point: the Examen of Consciousness is primarily a time of prayer; it is a "being with God." It focuses on one's consciousness of God, not necessarily one's conscience regarding sins and mistakes.
Discernment
Discernment is rooted in the understanding that God is ever at work in one's life, "inviting, directing, guiding and drawing" one "into the fullness of life." Its central action is reflection on the ordinary events of one's life. It presupposes an ability to reflect on the ordinary events of one's life, a habit of personal prayer, self-knowledge, knowledge of one's deepest desires and openness to God's direction and guidance. Discernment is a prayerful 'pondering' or 'mulling over' the choices a person wishes to consider. In his discernment, the person's focus should be on a quiet attentiveness to God and sensing rather than thinking. His goal is to understand the choices in his heart: to see them, as it were, as God might see them. In one sense, there is no limit to how long he might wish to continue in this. Discernment is a repetitive process, yet as the person continues, some choices should of their own accord fall by the wayside while others should gain clarity and focus. It is a process that should move inexorably toward a decision.
Service and Humility
Ignatius emphasized the active expression of God's love in life and the need to be self-forgetful in humility. Part of Jesuit formation is the undertaking of service specifically to the poor and sick in the most humble ways: Ignatius wanted Jesuits in training to serve part of their time as novices and in tertianship (see
Formation below) as the equivalent of orderlies in hospitals, for instance, emptying bed pans and washing patients, to learn humility and loving service. Jesuit educational institutions often adopt mottoes and mission statements that include the idea of making students "men for others," and the like. Jesuit missions have generally included medical clinics, schools and agricultural development projects as ways to serve the poor or needy while preaching the Gospel.
Jesuit formation
The training of Jesuits seeks to prepare men spiritually, academically and practically for the ministries they will be called to offer the Church and world. Ignatius of Loyola was strongly influenced by the
Renaissance and wanted Jesuits to be able to offer whatever ministries were most needed at any given moment, and especially, to be ready to respond to missions (assignments) from the
Pope. Formation for
Priesthood normally takes up to 14 years, depending on the man's background and previous education, and final vows are taken several years after that, making Jesuit training among the longest of any of the religious orders.
- Candidacy is an informal precursor to becoming a Jesuit, wherein a man interested in joining the Jesuits explores his calling with a spiritual director. The candidate attends Jesuit vocation events, including retreats and discussions with other candidates and Jesuits. Candidacy can last any length of time, with the norm being about a year. During this time, the candidate may or may not live in a Jesuit community.
- Novitiate is the first stage of formation. The Novice begins to live the three vows of poverty, chastity, obedience (though he has not yet vowed himself publicly), completes the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola, learns about the history and practice of the order and enters into a series of “experiments.” These experiments are usually short ministerial assignments where the novice tests his aptitude for various ministries, such as, teaching, working with the marginalized or giving retreats. The novitiate lasts 2 years. Jesuit novices place the letters "n. S.J." after their names.
At this point, the novice pronounces his First Vows (perpetual Simple vows of poverty, chastity and obedience and a vow to persevere to final profession and ordination) and becomes either a Scholastic (entering onto the path of priesthood) or a Jesuit brother (technically known as a "temporal coadjutor," but officially styled "brother" today). The scholastics (who are addressed by the title "Mister") and the Brothers (addressed by the title "Brother") of the Society of Jesus have different courses of study, although they often overlap.
For scholastics, the usual course of studies is as follows:
- First Studies is the period when the scholastic begins his academic training. Depending on his prior education it will last 2–4 years, guaranteeing a grounding in philosophy and the attainment of at least a first university level degree thus, in the United States, a four-year bachelor's degree, unless this has already been earned). It may also introduce the study of theology or some other specialized area.
- As Jesuits serve on the faculties of high schools and universities, and in a wide variety of other positions, the Jesuit scholastic or Jesuit priest often earns a master or doctoral degree on some area - it may be, for instance, Theology or it may be History, English, Chemistry, Educational Administration, Law or any other subject. Hence, a Jesuit may spend another few years earning a graduate degree beyond the bachelor's.
- Regency is the next stage, wherein the scholastic lives and works in a typical Jesuit community (as opposed to the “formation communities” he has lived in so far). He is engaged full-time in ministry (an Apostolate), which is traditionally teaching in a secondary school, but it may be any ministry Jesuits are engaged in. Regency lasts for 2–3 years.
- Theology is the stage immediately preceding ordination. By universal canon law, every candidate for priestly ordination must complete four years of theology studies, though part of this requirement may have been met in first studies. This will include the attainment of a first degree in theology (such as the Bachelor of Sacred Theology), and usually a second (masters level) degree in a specialized area related to theology. (As such, it is not uncommon for a Jesuit to hold a master's level degree in Theology, and, as mentioned above, a second master's or a doctorate in a completely different field.)
- Ordination follows, and the new priest may receive a ministerial assignment or be sent back for further studies in any academic field.
- The ordained Jesuit priest will either be chosen for profession as a "spiritual coadjutor," taking the usual perpetual vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, or for profession as a "professed of the four vows."
- Those who are destined by his superiors for profession for the four vows under take Tertianship, so named because it is something like a third year of novitiate, which follows within a few years of ordination. After his first fews years of experience of ministry as a priest, the Jesuit completes the final stage of formal formation by revisiting the essentials of Jesuit life which he learned as a novice: once again, he studies the history and Constitutions of the Jesuits, he makes the Spiritual Exercises and participates in experimentism, most often by serving in ministries to the sick, terminally ill or poor.
- Final Vows for the fully professed follow upon tertianship, wherein the Jesuit pronounces perpetual solemn vows of poverty, chastity, obedience, and the Fourth vow, unique to Jesuits, of special obedience to the pope in matters regarding mission, promising to undertake any mission laid out in the Formula of the Institute the pope may choose.
- Only the professed of the four vows are eligible for posts like novice master, provincial superior or assistant to the general of the society.
- The professed of the four vows take, in addition to these solemn perpetual vows five additional simple vows: not to consent to any mitigation of the Society's observance of poverty; not to "ambition" or seek any prelacies (ecclesiastical offices) outside the Society; not to ambition any offices within the Society; a commitment to report any Jesuit who does so ambition; and, if a Jesuit does become a bishop, to permit the general to continue to provide advice to that bishop, though the vow of obedience to Jesuit superiors is not operative over matters the man undertakes as bishop. Under these vows, no Jesuit may "campaign" or even offer his name for appointment or election to any office, and if chosen for one must remind the appointing authority (even the Pope) of these vows — if the Pope commands that the Jesuit accept ordination as a bishop anyway, the Jesuit must keep an open ear to the Jesuit general as an influence.
The formation of Jesuit brothers has a much less structured form. Prior to the
Second Vatican Council, Jesuit brothers worked almost exclusively within Jesuit communities as cooks, tailors, farmers, secretaries, accountants, librarians and maintenance support - they were thus technically known as "temporal coadjutors," as they assisted the professed priests by undertaking the more "worldly' jobs, freeing the professed of the four vows and the "spiritual coadjutors" to undertake the sacramental and spiritual missions of the Society. Following the Second Vatican Council, which recognized the mission of all the Christian faithful, not just those who are ordained, to share in the ministries of the Church, Jesuit brothers began to engage in ministries outside of their communities. Today, the formation of a Jesuit brother may take many forms, depending on his aptitude for ministry. He may pursue a highly academic formation which mirrors that of the scholastics (there are, for instance, some Jesuit brothers who serve as university professors), or he may pursue more practical training in areas such as pastoral counseling or spiritual direction (some assist in giving retreats, for instance), or he may continue in the traditional “supporting” roles in which so many Jesuit brothers have attained notable levels of holiness (as administrative aides, for example). Since Vatican II the Society has officially adopted the term "brother," which was always the unofficial form of address for the temporal coadjutors.
Regardless of the practical details, Jesuit formation is meant to form men who are open and ready to serve whatever is the Church’s current need. Today, all Jesuits are expected to learn
English language, and those who speak English as a first language are expected to learn
Spanish language.
Government of the Society
The Society is headed by a Superior General. In the Jesuit Order, the formal title of the Superior General is "Praepositus Generalis," Latin for General President, more commonly called Father General or General, who is elected by the General Congregation for life or until he resigns, is confirmed by the Pope, and has absolute authority in running the Society.
He is assisted by "assistants," each of whom heads an "assistancy," which is either a geographic area (for instance, the North American Assistancy) or an area of ministry (for instance, higher education). The assistants normally reside with the General Superior in Rome. The assistants, together with a number of other advisors, form an advisory council to the General. A vicar general and secretary of the Society run day-to-day administration. The General is also requ
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